Rapid application development (RAD), also called rapid application building (RAB), is both a general term for adaptive software development approaches, and the name for James Martin's method of rapid development. In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on an adaptive process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even instead of design specifications.
RAD is especially well suited for (although not limited to) developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools. Other approaches to rapid development include the adaptive, agile, spiral, and unified models.
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Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and others, James Martin developed the rapid application development approach during the 1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by publishing a book in 1991, Rapid Application Development. This has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as a general alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems.
A number of factors fueled migration west. Trappers,settlers, and miners headed West from the easternUnited States prior to the Civil War. The HomesteadAct, passed in 1862, allowed settlers to claim 160acres of land for free. Another important factor was completion of the first transcontinental railroad in1869; the railroad led to much more rapid westernmigration and also facilitated economic development.
In looking at the history of the American West, itis important to keep in mind the myths that arosearound the settling of the West in the second half of thenineteenth century. The influential historian FrederickJackson Turner described a uniquely Americanpersonality forged by the experience of taming thewilderness and critical to the success and growth ofthe United States. That view of the West as a frontierwhere heroic white settlers and cowboys struggled tobring civilization to a savage land framed popular andscholarly thinking for years to come.
In addition to changes in behavior, alterations in sleep patterns would also likely have occurred early in the domestication process due to the shift from the ancestral nocturnal state of wolves, to that of the diurnal lifestyle also exhibited by humans. Evidenced by this, levels of circadian rhythm determinants (e.g., melatonin and serotonin) were significantly altered in domesticated silver foxes selected for tameness compared to wild foxes [111,112,113]. We hypothesize that early selection on genes influencing behavior have additional functions in the establishment of circadian rhythms, and that both can be explained by impaired NC function. The Smith-Magenis syndrome is caused by disrupted function of RAI1 [114], the gene with the highest XP-CLR score in our study. Humans with Smith-Magenis syndrome display increased aggression and altered circadian rhythms, as well as craniofacial and skeletal deformations, developmental delays, and intellectual disabilities [115]. Similarly, Williams-Beuren syndrome, another neurodevelopmental disorder, affects sleep patterns as well as contributes to hypersociability in humans [116]. A recent study in canines linked behavioral changes in breed dogs to structural variants near WBSCR17, a Williams-Beuren syndrome gene [117]. Both syndromes display multiple features associated with improper NCC development, resembling phenotypes of neurocristopathies [115, 118]. For example, disruption of the transcription factors RAI1 and WSTF in xenopus (also disrupted in Williams-Beuren syndrome) negatively impacts proper NCC migration, recapitulating the human craniofacial defects associated with the syndromes [119, 120]. RAI1 also regulates circadian rhythms [121,122,123,124], a pathway within which other XP-CLR candidate loci genes also exhibit possible (RNPC3; [125, 126]) and experimentally verified (FBLX3; [127]) roles. Altogether, the top scoring locus, as well as others, indicate overlap of gene functions in influencing behavior and circadian rhythms, and were likely early genetic components of the domestication syndrome.
By comparing village dogs and wolves, we identified 246 candidate domestication regions in the dog genome. Analysis of gene function in these regions suggests that perturbation of crucial neural crest signaling pathways could result in the broad phenotypes associated with the domestication syndrome. Additionally, these findings suggest links between transcriptional regulation and splicing to alterations in cell differentiation, migration, and neural crest development. Altogether, we conclude that while primary selection during domestication likely targeted tameness, genes that contribute to determination of this behavioral change are also involved in critical, far-reaching pathways that conferred drastic phenotypic changes in dogs relative to their wild counterparts.
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